Pragmatic by George Yule (in Summary)

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CHAPTER I
DEFINITION AND BACKGROUND

Pragmatic is the explanation about utterance meaning. It means that pragmatic is the science of studying about the meaning delivered by the speaker (writer) and interpreted by the listener (reader).
Pragmatic is solution about contextual meaning. In this type, needed the consideration about how the speaker arrange what he wants to say adapted with the listener, where the condition is, when, and how.
Pragmatic is solution about how is more being submitted than said. This type digs how much something which is not said is part of being submitted. So we can say that this study is about the hazed meaning search.
Pragmatic is solution about the expression from relation distance. This view generates problem on what determines the choosing between what is submitted and what is not submitted.
Those are four of scopes come within in the pragmatic. To understand why this happens, we have to observe its correlation with other linguistic scopes briefly.

SYNTAX, SEMANTIC, AND PRAGMATIC
One traditional difference about language analysis differentiates pragmatic with semantic and syntax.
- Syntax is explanation about relation among linguistic forms. This type usually happens without considering reference world or other form.
- Semantic is explanation among linguistic forms with something literally.
- Pragmatic is the clarification about relationship among the appearance user.

REGULARITY
Some of these regularities are from the factual that human is the social group member following the expected public behavior pattern in that group. In a chummy social group, we will usually be easy to perform respectably and tell something right. On the other hand, in a new social group that isn’t chummy yet, we are sometimes not sure about what is said and we are afraid of saying something wrong.
Another regularity source in using language comes from the fact that most of people in a linguistic society have the same based experience about world and give many non-linguistic sciences one another.
PRAGMATIC WASTE BASKET
Within long in language solution, there has been strong desire in formal analysis systems which are often from logic and mathematic. Its prominence is on invention of some abstract principles which convergent at the language essence. By placing the discovery of abstract language characteristic, potential universally, on the middle of their workbench, the linguists and language philosophies tend to remove any kind of note they find about the usage daily language to the desk edge. When the desks start to full, many notes about the usage of the common language start to be degraded and end in the garbage crate. The abundance waste basket has become the source of the most of what will be expostulated on the following page. It is considered that the waste basket content initially is not arranged below one single category. The content is defined negatively, as uneasy handled material in the formal analysis systems.

CHAPTER II
DEIXIS AND DISTANCE
Deixis is technical term (from Greece Language) to one of the basic something which we do with pragmatic. Deixis is “indication” pass a language.
Types of linguistic used to finish indication called expression of deixis. Expression of Deixis sometime called “ indectical” to explain the deixis all of expression depend on explanation of speaker and hearer in the some context.
PERSON DEIXIS
Person deixis is deixis that change the speaking people from its rank as “I” become ”you”, contrasly.
Person deixis explain 3 part of basic that exampled with
- the first pronoun “I”,
- the second pronoun “you”, t
- he third pronoun “he, she, it”.
SPATIAL DEIXIS
A concept about distance between mentioned which have a near relation with deixis of place, is a place relation between people and its’ something showed to this basic difference, English language contemporer only use two word information “here” and “there”, but in the old texts and in the dialogs can found a set of aquipment of long expression of deixis more.
TEMPORAL DEIXIS
The psychological basic of temporal deixis seems to be similar to that of spatial deixis. WE can threat temporal events as objects that move toward us (into view) or away from us (out of view).
One basic (but often unrecognized) type of temporal deixis in English is in the choice of verb tense.
Whereas discussing other languages have many different forms of the verb as well as different times. English has only two basic forms, the time now (now), example, I live here now, and the past, example, I live here last month .
DEIXIS AND GRAMMAR
The principal difference in the serve so far about person deixis, spatial deixis, and temporal deixis, it can be seen on the work of one of the differences-the most common structural difference which is made in English grammar-that is between direct and indirect sentences . Keep in mind that the place, from the viewpoint of the speakers, can be determined both mentally and physically. The speaker which are temporarily away from their homes, will often continue to use 'here' with the intention of the location of housing (physical distance), as if they were still exist at that location. The speaker also seems to imagine himself in the place before he was in that place. This statement is sometimes described as the projection deixis and we more often take advantage of possibilities-long shot like most technologies which allow us to manipulate the spot.
The proximal deictic forms of a direct speech reporting communicate, often dramatically a sense of being in the same context as the utterance. The distal deictic forms of a indirect speech reporting communicate make the original speech event seem more remote. Their interpretation depends on the context, the speaker intention, and they express relative distance.

CHAPTER 3
REFERENCE AND INFERENCE
Reference clearly interrelated to the purpose of speaker to identify something and conviction of speaker in using language. In order to become success reference, we must know about the inference role too. Inference is a conclusion reached on the basis of knowledge or facts. The linguistic types in reference is the expression that maybe have form of “name, nominal phrase or nominal phrase (none fixed), and pronouns. For example: Mr. After Shave is late today.
USING REFERENCIAL AND USING ATTRIBUTIVE
Not at all expression has physical reference that can be known.
For example: (A) He wants to marry a woman with lots of money
(B) there’s a man waiting for you.
And from (A) someone is more interest to listen that the woman has much money than her name. Nominal phrase (non-fixed) can be used to explain the entity that was assumption, but is not known. In word “B” can be substituted with “anyone/anybody”. It’s naming using attributive.
NAME AND REFERENCE
There is norm that the expression of certain reference will be used to know certain entity in a regular proof. An opinion of pragmatics is correctly allowing us to see how someone can be identified by expression.
For example: (b) yeach, It’s over there on the table.
(a) Can I borrow your ShakesPare ?
CO-TEXT RULE
Co-text clearly limited interpretation span that maybe concern with a word.
For example: (a) the heart attack mustn’t be moved.
(b) a couple of room have complained about the heat.
(A hospital is context to (a) and the receptionist room is context to (b))
The reference analyze in a crucial manner depend on habit with socio-culture norms as basic of conclusion. So, reference is not relation between the meaning of word or phrase with or someone in this world. Reference is a social measure, where the speaker has assumption that word a mean of the speaker.
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
In English, the beginning reference or introduce term, often not fixed (a man, a woman, a cat) in a fixed nominal (the cat, the man, the woman) and pronouns ( he, she, it, they) is the example of next reference that concern to reference has been introduced. It usually knows anaphora and the beginning expression knows Antecedent.
There is pattern inversion of anaphora antecedent that sometimes founded at the beginning of story. For example: “I turned the corner and almost step on it. There was a large snake in the middle of the path”. (In pronouns “it” is used at first and that pronoun is difficult to be interpreted). So, nominal phrase is used to the next row. It’s called Cathapora.
If the explanation requires us to know an entity and there is not an expression of linguistic, this explanation is called zero anaphora or ellipsis. The function of zero anaphora as device to determine reference clearly makes a hope that enable to the speaker can conclude who or what the speaker’s mean. For example: “cook for three minutes”.
The key to understand reference is pragmatic process where speaker choose the linguistic expression with purpose to know certain entity with assumption the listener will has teamwork and understand that expression as the speaker’s mean.

CHAPTER 4
PRESUPPOSES AND ENTAILMENT
This is important to attention that presupposes and entailment is more far be centered concerning pragmatic in the past time than present time. Subject in this chapter designed for describe a thinking process by means of problem in analysis concerning, several aspect of meaning that not appear.
 Presupposes is something that assumption by speaker as occurrence before produce a announcement. That have presupposes is speaker not sentence.
 Entailment is something that in a logical manner follow what that clearness in announcement. That have entailment is sentence not speaker.
Characteristic presupposes usually explain as constancy under denial is mean presupposes a pronouncement until constant (constant true) although that pronouncement sentence be denial. There are several type in presupposes that is :
 Presupposes factive : usage special express take for be of the opinion truth information that obvious after that.
 Presupposes non-factive : something of presupposes that assumption not true. Example of verb like “dream”, “imagine”, and “pretend”.
 Presupposes lexical : usage special express by speaker take for be of the opinion a another concept (not obvious).
 Presupposes structural : structural of certain sentence already analysis as presupposes in a constant manner and conventional that part of structure already truth of assumption.
 Presupposes counterfactual : that what be of the opinion mustn’t not true but form be the opposite from true or be the opposite with reality.





TYPE EXAMPLE PRESUPPOSES
Factive I’m regret leave it >> I’m leave it
Non-factive he pretend happily >> he not happily
Lexical he planning escape >> he try to escape
Structural when he die? >> he die
Counterfactual if I’m not sick >> I’m sick
PROJECTION PROBLEM
There is something base hope that presupposition in simple sentence will be in right way when the simple sentence become a part in a complex sentence. This is one of the version from the common concept that the meaning from the whole sentence is combination from the part of each that part sentence, but, a part meaning from the presupposition is unable become the meaning from some complex sentence, and this is called projection problem.
Shirley : It’s so sad. George regrets getting Mary pregnant.
Jean : But he didn’t get her pregnant. We know that now.
If we combine two narration from (13), we can get the chronological, George regrets getting Mary pregnant; But he didn’t get her pregnant !
After we identify a different presupposition, we can see that presupposition in isn’t hold out like presupposition from the narratives that were be combined.
a. George regrets getting Mary pregnant ( = p )
b. George got Mary Pregnant ( = q )
c. p >> q
d. He didn’t get her pregnant ( = r )
e. George regrets getting Mary pregnant, but he didn’t get her pregnant ( = p & r )
f. p & r >> Not q
One of the method to analyze whole sentences which is presented in (14.e) is a narrative by somebody is reporting something happen in soap opera.
That people didn’t assume the q presupposition is right.
THE ARRANGED IN ORDERLY ENTAILMENT
Actually entailment is not m pragmatic concept (because is related by the speaker’s purpose), but it is regarded a logic concept, and it is symbolic by II -. There some example of entailment.
Rover chased three squirrels ( = p )
a. Something chased three squirrels ( = q )
b. Rover did something to three squirrels ( = r )
c. Rover chased of three something ( = s )
d. Something happened ( = t )
In preset a relationship between entailment and as p II–q, in simple way we can say that the narrative in sentence, the speaker must confess that the correctness in some back entailment.



CHAPTER 5
COOPERATION AND IMPLICATION
The chapter before it said that speaker and listener are involved in a conversation. Generally they cooperate with each others. For example when someone says “my car”, automatically the listener assumes that the listener really has a car and the listener also plans to say the reality that he really has a car.
Implication is an addition purpose that is explained by the speaker. For example, when someone asks to his friend about hamburger, “How do you like a hamburger?” then his friend answers “Hamburger is hamburger”. The implication is the speaker thinks that all hamburgers are same.
COOPERATION PRINCIPLE
Think that you are sitting on the bench in a park and there is a dog under it, then a man comes to you and asks you “does your dog bite?” and you answers “No, my dog doesn’t bite!” then the man touch the dog feathers and the dog bites him. The man says to you “Hey’ you said that your dog doesn’t bite!” and you says “yes, my dog doesn’t bite, but that is not my dog”.
The story above shows us that you and the man are right. But the problem is from the understanding of the man that thinks the dog under the bench is your dog although not. The man needs more information than you give about the dog. It is a misunderstanding.
The point is the cooperation principle must give a good understanding to the speaker and the listener. Cooperation principle can be divided by 4 subs. Here are the subs:
1. Maxim of quality
• Don’t say what you believe to be false
• Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence

Example:
Background:
A friend’s father considers whether or not to buy your friend a new car, and you are aware that the old car has broken down before.
A : should I buy my son this new sport car?
B improper : I do not know if that is such a good idea, his car runs fine.
B proper : yeah, that sounds like a good idea, his car has broken down before.
2. Maxim of quantity
• Make your contribution as informative as is required
• Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
Example:
Background:
A man stops his vehicle in the middle of the road to briefly ask you for directions.
A : where is the post office?
B improper : there are two in town, but the closest one is brand new. Down the road, about 50 meters past the second left. Also, you should not stop your car in the middle of the road anymore.
B improper : continue on, and make the second left up there. You will see it.



3. Maxim of relation
• Be relevant
Example:
A : ugh, I wonder what time it is…..
B improper : it is 6.30
B proper : it is 6.30. So, you have the whole night ahead of you! Have you eaten at Hardy’s before?
4. Maxim of manner
• Avoid obscurity of expression.
• Avoid ambiguity
• Be orderly.
Example:
A : can you take out the trash?
B improper : well, it is probable that I would take out the trash more often if someone were not flagrantly wasteful, such that, the majority of trash was not always coming from that person.
B proper : Sure, but we need to talk about how we are assigning the chores around here when I get back.
CONVERSATION IMPLICATION
The basic assumption of conversation is the members should follow the maxim rules in a conversation. For example:
Charlene : I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.
Dexter : Ah, I brought the bread.
After knowing the response of Dexter, Charlene automatically realized that Dexter only brought the bread. He didn’t bring the cheese. Dexter only said that he brought the bread without saying that he didn’t bring the cheese in order to make Charlene assume that he didn’t bring the cheese.
GENERAL CONVERSATION IMPLICATION
This implication is more general than conversation implication because it is not specific. For example:
Someone says: “I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looks over the fence”
The implication shows that the garden and the child are not his. If the garden and the child are his, he will says “my garden” and ”my child”.
SCALED IMPLICATION
This implication is decided by value scale. The information that is explained implies the value of scale. For example:
Someone says: “I am studying linguistics and I have completed some of the required course”
The speaker uses word “some” shows us that the speaker has not finished all the linguistics courses. We will know more about the implication if the speaker explains more about the linguistics, for example:
He says: “They are sometimes really interesting”.
It shows that speaker is not only has not completed the courses, but also he is sometimes interested in linguistics.
PRIVATE CONVERSATION IMPLICATION
This implication needs a private knowledge. For example:
Rick : Hey, coming to the wild party tonight?
Tom : My parents are visiting
To make Tom’s answer becomes relevant, Rick must have a little knowledge that is assumed that Tom has another activity tonight. It also shows that Tom won’t join the wild party because his parents will visit him. And it won’t be wild.
CONVENTIONAL IMPLICATION
This implication is real using the words are spoken. Not hidden. It is free. The words that are usually used are “but and even”. For example:
Roger : Marry suggested black, but I choose white.
The implication is the sentence “I choose white”. It shows the implication. The implication is real and not hidden.




CHAPTER 6
SPEECH ACTS AND EVENTS
In attempting to express themselves, people perform actions via those utterances. Utterance can be used to perform the act of ending your employment. However, the actions performed by utterances do not have to be as dramatic or as unpleasant. The action can be quite pleasant, as in he compliment performed, the acknowledgement of thanks, or the expression of surprise. For the examples, “You’re so delicious”, “You’re welcome”, “You’re crazy”.
Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts and, in English, are commonly given more specific labels, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.
These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts apply to the speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance. Speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance. These circumstances, including other utterances, are called the speech event. In many ways, it is the nature of the speech event that determines the interpretation of an utterance as performing a particular speech art. If the same utterance can be interpreted as two different kinds of speech act, it also means that there is more to the interpretation of a speech act that can be found in the utterance alone.
SPEECH ACTS
On any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts. There is first a locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression.
Mostly we don’t just produce well-formed utterances with no purpose. We form an utterance with some kind of function in mind. This is the second dimension, or the illocutionary act. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.
We do not, of course simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to have an effect. This is the third dimension, the perlocutionary act.
Indeed, the term ‘speech act’ is generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance. The illocutionary force of an utterance is what it ‘counts as’.
How can speakers assume that the intended illocutionary force will be recognized by the hearer? That question has been addressed by considering two things: illocutionary Force Indicating devices and Felicity conditions.
While other devices, such as lowered voice quality for a warning or a threat, might be used to indicate illocutionary force, the utterance also has to be produced under certain conventional conditions to count as having the intended illocutionary force.
FELICITY CONDITIONS
There are certain expected or appropriate circumstances, technically known as felicity conditions, for the performances of a speech act to be recognized as intended.
In every context among ordinary people, there are also preconditions on speech acts. There are general conditions on the participants, for example, that they can understand the language being used and that they are not play-acting or being nonsencial.
Them there are content conditions. For example, for both a promise and a warning, the content of the utterance must be about a future event.
The preparatory conditions for a promise are significantly different from those for a warning. When I promise to do something, there are two preparatory conditions: first, the event will not happen by itself, and second, the event will have a beneficial effect. Related to these conditions is the sincerity condition that, for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action, and for a warning, the speaker genuinely believes that the future event will not have a beneficial effect.
Finally, there is the essential condition, which covers the fact that by the act of uttering a promise, In the other words, the utterance changes my state from non-obligation to obligation. This assential condition thus combines with a specification of what must be in the utterance content, the context, and the speaker’s intentions, in order for a specific speech act to be appropriately (felicitously) performed.
THE PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS
One way to think about the speech acts being performed via utterances is to assume that underlying every utterance (U) there is a clause, similar to “I (Vp) you that…”, containing a performative verb (Vp) which makes the illocutionary force explicit. This is known as the performative hypothesis and the basic format of the underlying clause in “I (hereby) Vp you (that) U”.
“I hereby order you that you clean up this mess.”, in that clause, this underlying clause will always make explicit. Unlike, “ Clean up this mess!”, in utterances is implicit.
“I hereby order you that you clean up this mess.”, are used by speakers as explicit performatives. “ Clean up this mess!”, are implicit performatives, sometimes called primary performatives.
The advantage of this type of analysis is that it makes clear just what elements are involved in the production and interpretation of utterances.
Another advantage is to show that some adverbs such as ‘honestly’, or adverbial clauses such as ‘because I may be late’, in “What time is it, because I may be late?”, naturally attach to the explicit performative clauses rather than the implicit version.
There are some technical disadvantages to the performative hypothesis. For example, uttering the explicit performative version of a command has a much more serious impact than uttering the implicit version. It is also difficult to know exactly what the performative verb (or verbs) might be for some utterances, it would be very strange to have an explicit version.
The really practical problem with any analysis based on identifying explicit performatives is that, in principle, we simply do not know how many performative verbs there are in any language. Instead of trying to list all the possible explicit performatives, and then distinguish among all of them, some more general classifications of types of speech acts are usually used.
SPEECH ACT CLASSSIFICATION
One general classification system lists fives types of general function performed by speech acts, declaration, representatives, expressive, directives, and commisive.
1. Declaration are those kind of speech acts that change the word via their utterance.
When use it, the speaker change the world with words.
2. Representative is are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker belief as issues or not.
Example :
a. the earth is flat
b. chomsky didn’t write about peanuts
c. it was a warm sunny day
to using a representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world (of belief).
3. Expressive are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels.
Example:
I’m really sorry!
Congratulations!
In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).
4. Directives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speakers use to get someone to do something.
Example :
Could you lend me a pen, please?
Don’t touch that.
In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the hearer).
5. Commisive are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends.
Example:
I’ll be back
We will not do that.
In using the commisive, the speaker understake to make the world fit the words (via the speaker).

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS
There is a simple recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declaratives, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative function (statement, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request).
Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act.
Whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and function, we have an indirect speech art.
Thus, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. When it is used to make a statement, it is a direct speech art.
When it is used to make a command/request, it is functioning as an indirect speech art.
Example:
It’s cold outside.
Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech art.
SPEECH EVENTS
Asking about preconditions technically is not count as making a request, but does allow the hearer to react as if is the request has been made. It is better in most social circumstances, for the speaker to avoid direct imposition via a direct request. When the speaker asks about preconditions, no direct request is made. A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. The analysis of speech events is clearly way to studying how more gets communicated than is said.


CHAPTER 7
POLITENESS AND INTERACTION
A linguistic interaction is necessarily a social interaction. Factors which relate to social distance and closeness are established prior to interaction. They typically involve the relative status of the participants, based on social values tied to such things as age and power. We take part in a wide range of interactions ( mostly with strangers ) where the social distance determined by external factors is dominant. However, there are other factors, such as amount of imposition or degree of friendliness, which are often negotiated during in interaction. These are internal to the interaction and can result in the initial social distance changing and being marked as less, or more, during its course. These internal factors are typically in the process of being worked out within the interaction. Both types of factors, external and internal, have an influence not only on what we say, but also on how we are interpreted. Recognizing the impact is normally carried out in terms of politeness.
 Politeness
Within interaction, however, there is a more narrowly specified type of politeness at work. Face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of selfs that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Politeness can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face. Showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seems socially distant is often described in terms of respect or deference.
 Face Wants
Within their everyday social interactions, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face saving act. Because it is generally expected that each person will attempt to respect the face wants of others, there are many different ways of performing gace saving acts.

 Negative and Positive Face
A person’s negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. A person’s positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants to shared by others.
 Self and other : say nothing
One way to see the relevance of the relationship between this politeness concepts and language use is to take a single speech event and map out the different interpretation associated with different possible expressions used within that event.
For Example : - self : ( Looks in bag )
- other : ( offer pen ) Here,use this.
 Say something : off and on record
Example :
a. Uh,,,I forgot my pen.
b. Hmm,,,I wonder where I put my pen.
{ They are technically described as being off record. }
An address forms are technically described as being on record my be followed by expressions like ‘ please ‘ and ‘ would you?’.
Example :
- Have some more cake.
- Give me that wet umbrella.
However, generally speaking, bald on record expressions are associated with speech events where the speaker assumes that he or she has a power over the other ( for example, in military contexts ) and can control the other’s behavior with words.
 Positive and Negative Politeness
A positive politeness is a face saving act which is concerned with the person’s positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speaker want the same thing, and that they have a common goal. For example : ( How about letting me use your pen? ). Meanwhile a negative politeness is a face saving act which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the others time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interuption. For example : ( I’m sorry to brother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something?).
 Strategies
A solidarity strategy will be marked via inclusive terms such as ‘ we ‘ and ‘ let’s ‘. For example : - Come on let’s go to the party. Everyone will be there. We’ll have fun. The language associated with a deference strategy emphasizes the speaker’s and the hearer’s independence, marked via an absence of personal claims.
For example : - There’s going to be a party, If you can make it. It will be fun.
These general types of strategies are illustrated here via utterances which are actually central to the speech event ( for example, invitation ). Face saving behavior, however, is often at work well before such utterances are produced, in the form of pre-sequences.
 Pre-sequences
The basic assumption, from the perspective of politeness, is that face typically at risk when the self needs to accomplish something involving other. The advantage of the pre-request element is that it can be answered either with a ‘ go ahead ‘ response. For example ; him : Are you busy? (= pre-request)
her : Oh, sorry. (=stop)
Pre-sequences are also commonly used in making invitations.
For example ; him : What are you doing this Friday ? (=pre-invitation)
her : Hmm, nothing so far. (=go ahead)
him : Come over for dinner. (=invitation)
her : Oh, I’d like that. (=accept)
Children often use pre-announcements to check if their parents are willing to pay attention.
For example ;
child : Mom, guess what happened ? (=pre -announcement)
mother : ( silence )
child : Mom you know what ? (=pre-announcement)
mother : Not right now, Jacy, I’m busy. (=stop)
Throughout this discussion of politeness in interaction, we have been assumsing a well-known and easily recognizable structure for the interaction.


PART 8
THE STRUCTURE OF CONVERSATION AND REFERENCE
The word interaction can be applied to some social meeting with a various kinds. The kinds of conversation is maybe look different depend on its different interaction context. The structure of conversation is anything that we have been assumption as something that we already know well by discussion first.
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
There are a lot of allusions that used to describe the structure of conversation. They can say that a conversation is like a dance, or traffic current on the cross road, that involve alloy of kinds of movements. But, the analytical approaches that have been used most are based on the analogy. On that part there is an extinct commodity that called a chance to talk ”floor” that usually we define it as a right to talk or turn. And when someone tries to take control of that situation we called it the taking over of turn, it is as a form of social action. The possibility of turn changing problem is called with TRP (Transition Relevance Place). The interaction designs of conversation are different from one social group to another.
OVERLAPS AND BACKCHANNEL
Most of conversations are involve 2 persons or more. Overlap is both speakers try to talk at the same time. If two persons try to talk but doesn’t find a flow or rhythm, it means that they have more understanding than words to talk. You can see the first the example of conversation that shows miscorrelations.
1. Mr. Straits : What’s your major Dave?
Dave : English-well I haven’t really decided yet. (3 seconds)
Mr. Straits : So-you want to be a teacher?
Dave : No-not really-well not if I can help it. (2, 5 seconds)
Mr. Straits : What-//Where do you-go ahead?
Dave : I mean it’s a-oh sorry// I-emm-.
• The short interval (-) show a form of uncertainty, while the long one become silence. Two or the last line shows overlap with a conventional way. And signed with (//) on the first conversation.
The second Example shows a silence between both speakers because of each speaker doesn’t take their part well.
2. Jan : Dave I’m going to the store. (2 seconds)
Jan : Dave? (2 seconds)
Jan : Dave-is something wrong?
Dave : What? What’s wrong?
Jan : Never mind.
Most of speakers (younger).overlap speaking usually appear in the language use function. The third example shows an effect from the speaker that overlaps and makes a sense comparison of two voices that gather in harmony.
3. Min : Did you see him in the video?
Wendy : Yeah-the part on the beach.
Min : Oh my God//he was so sexy.
Wendy : He was just being so cool.
Min : And all the waves//crashing around him.
Wendy : Yeah that was really wild.
• In the example above an overlap shows a close relation between both speakers.
4. The next example, overlap shows a competition.
Joe : When they were in//power last-wait CAN I FINISH?
Jerry : That’s my point I said.
• In the fourth example the speakers look like to talk, but actually they are in competition to get their each right to talk. The first speaker wants some rules of conversation structure.
The TRP signs that very conspicuous are the structural of intervals. Anyone who wants a right to speak must wait for the TRP possibility before come in. They must realize the existence of interval in the last of syntax unit. The fifth example shows that each speaker has filled their each interval, and put it inside of syntax unit. In this example we can see that the speakers were tried to defend their turn.
5. I wasn’t talking about-um his first book that was-uh really just like a start and so-uh isn’t-doesn’t count really.
There’s another way to defend a right to talk. You can see that in the sixth example.
6. a. There are three points I’d like to make first...
b. There’s more than one ways to do this-one example would be...
c. Didn’t you know about Melvin? Oh-it was the last October...
d. Did you hear Cindy’s new car?-She got it in...
• The statements in the (6a) and (6b) are related with the fact or opinion, while the statements in (6c) and (6d) was the beginning.
There are some different kinds of ways to show that they were hearing such as smile, expression and another signs. But, the most common vocal indication is backchannel signals, like in the example below.
7. Caller : If you use your long distance service a lot then you’ll...
Marry : Uh-uh
Caller : Be interested in the discount I’m talking about, because...
Marry : Yeah
Caller : It can only save your money to switch to a cheaper service.
Marry : Mmmm
• These kinds of signals (‘uh-uh’, ‘yeah’, ‘mmm’) give feed back to the speaker that speak, the listener follow what they’ve said and not refuse it.
SPEAKING STYLE
There are some variations that can create some misunderstanding. Some of individual hope that their role in the conversation will be very active. So that most of the speakers will relatively fast, almost without interval between the turn of speak. These kinds of speaking style called with high involving style. It means that the speaker use slower way, hoping for long intervals between the turn of speak. These kinds of speaking style called high solidarity style, where no need interruption and force.
ADJACENCY PAIRS
There are many kinds in the structure of dialogue,t hat are greeting, Introduce, etc.
Example: Anna: Hello Bill : Hi
Anna: How are you? Bill : Fine
Anna: See you! Bill :Bye
The name of automatic formation like that is Adjacency Pairs. There are two parts of pairs ,that are first part and second part which expression by to different peoples, and there is empty statement in the second part.
Example: First part Second part
A: How are you? B: The usual
A: What’s up? B: Nothing much
The others example of adjacency pairs is expressing of gratitude and offering/service help.

Example: First part Second part
A:Thanks B:You’re welcome
A:Could you help me with this? B:Sure
Sometimes, not all first part accept part two because there is others statement include in there, so the pattern is:
Agent: Do you want the early flight? (Q-1)
Client: What time does it arrive? (Q-2)
Agent: Nine forty-five. (A-2)
Clint: Yeah that’s great. (A-1)
STRUCTURE OF PREFERENCE
In the structure of preference, second part divided two, that are social measure which like and social measure which dislike.
Pattern:
First part Second part(like) (Dislike)
Value Agree Disagree
Inviting Accept Refuse
Offering Accept Refuse
Proposal Agree Disagree
Request Accept Refuse

The answer for second part which like of the request, offering, value or proposal is agree and accept.
Example: First part Second part
A. Can you help me? Sure
B. Isn’t that really great? Yes, it is
• It’s an example that the speaker given’t like answer.
Example:
Sandy : But I’m not sure they’ll have good food there. Hmmm I guess the food isn’t great.
Jack : People mostly go for the music.
• It’s an example that the second speaker give disagree statement.
Example:
Cindy : So chiroprodists do hands I guess.
Julie : Wel out there they mostly go for the music.
• It’s an example that the second speaker which dislike is uncertain in the offering statement.
Example:
Becky : Come over for some coffee later.
Wally : OH.. I’d love to-but you see –I’m supposed to get this finished-you know.









CHAPTER 9
WORD AND CULTURE

The chapter before, Interpretation based on the structure of conversation, especially aspect procedure to take serve to string the speaker, aftr the speaker get it, speaker must stact the structure and what they want their speak, they must summarize their message what they get or didn’t get it by hearer, if speaker decide to write the message, so they must to face to give bait interactive back.
In result, must depend on mecanism structural more explicite to stack their text. Speaker have 2 function that used to language they are:
1. Tectual Function that compose a text that fit and good row.
2. Idealisional Function are describe think and experience.

WORD ANALYSIS
Survey about range space that more wide than form and function that spoken and writen, if analysis limit into elements linguistic matter, so it’s focus in process note (Oral or Writen) where language used to context to clarify desire.
Generally, Interest wide in word struture this perspektif stuctural focus in topic. Example : Context explisite between sentence into text that compose a cohesion or element to arrange text are identify explain.
Specifically, study focus in aspect about how to spoken and writen, we must understand the social interaction matter and analyze conversation to memorize the form and structure text.
COHERENCE
Coherence in spoken and written discourse how to create it and how to describe.
Generally, user wide language are assumption coherence. It’s containing meaning of experience certain with individual because experience would be certain with familiriaty and expect.
Pressing of familiriaty and knowledge as coherence elements was needed because made interpretation was not observe with another alternative.
Example :
Man Robs Hotel with sandwich
If you made an interpretation to that sandwich (may be into bag) sandwich used as weapon, consider that as knowledge background was espect by writer.
KNOWLEDGE OF BACKGROUND
Our ability to interpretation are otomatis that didn’t write or not oral based on the first knowledge structure. The function of stucture are intimate point from the old experience used to interpretation new experience. The term generally is skema. Skema are knowledge structure before on the mind.
If any fixed design, that sure schema, it means frame. Frame that haved together by every people on social group will became prototype version. And then, if the characteristic of schema type more dynamic considered, so the type more always described as script. Script is knowledge structure before that involve rotation system of incident. We use script for making interpretation about the happened of incident. Another case became the rotation of incident that assumption for having together is background of knowledge.
A script concept according to simple recognize from some act rotation that hope on an incident. Because every part of script explanation that assumption ready to know, may be the explanation didn’t revealed. For member that have some culture, about script assumption that have together will give wide road for reveal without said. But the member for different culture, this assumption may be it can became false accomplish.

CULTURE SCHEMA
Almost can not avoid if background knowledge structure, our schema to explain the world, will be fixed by culture. We are develop culture schema in experience context base of us.
PRAGMATIC FLASH CULTURE
Different study hope based on culture schema, is part of wide folded room that common know as pragmatic flash culture. Concept and terminology may be give based analytic skeleton, but realization of concept may be different according to substantial. The different approach to connect between quality and quantity on knowing pragmatic that more comprehensive. Study about culture way different pronounce sometimes means contrastive pragmatic. The research focus according to more special to communicative act from people that not the original pronouns, while try for communication on their second language. The study like that more reveal if we speak with something called dialect pragmatic, is aspect that showing something that we assumption can understand without said.

Final Test

Final Test is the test that hold in the end of the semester. It is important to do to know about our ability about the lessons that the teacher give to the students...

EDUCaTION

What is hoped in education world in this time???
Education is not a word to make the student or the people clever and understand. But education is not pure again.
There isn't money, you haven't get formal education.
There are many people that can't get formal education because of money. If they are haven't money, they don't get education. although they can get scholarship, but it's only a little.
They are who haven't money, only can look and hear from the television, radio, and other mass media, or from the speak of the other person. They are realize that they are have the enough money that only for eat.
The government must know that it is the serious problem. They must can solve that. They must look at the bottom in many time. So they can look them. They can hear their crying. They can feel their sad.
So what can we do to solve this........??????